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The following subsections summarize the two mechanisms that relate to the renewable energy application (the full text discussing the two mechanisms is contained in Attachment 1). 3.2.1 Support Penetration of Renewable Solar Generation This section provides a simple estimate of how much solar generation can exist in a typical residential neighborhood, downstream from the substation, before reverse power flow can be expected. The integration of solar PV generation at high penetration in distribution systems will eventually require two-way flows of electric power toward the substation when the energy from solar PVs exceeds the downstream customer loads. The voltage control and short-circuit protection schemes used by distribution systems today were not designed to operate with reverse/upstream power flow. A smart grid’s assets can reduce these limitations and improve system stability and safety through dynamic protection schemes, voltage regulation and control, energy storage, and the provision of dynamic reactive power. DOE has a very active program that focuses on the integration of solar PV (http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/rsi.html). Solar PV is an attractive method of achieving zero-emissions energy production because it readily scales to the needed level. This makes it ideal for applications ranging from relatively small residential rooftop applications to larger commercial and industrial rooftop applications. The existing electricity infrastructure can support a limited penetration of solar PV with the current operating schemes, although the limit varies from utility to utility and feeder to feeder, depending upon the size and diversity of the load. A smart grid holds the promise of allowing much greater penetrations of solar PV and thus much greater reductions in emissions. To estimate how much solar generation can exist in a typical residential neighborhood before reverse power flow can be expected, we examine a worst-case condition. This consists of maximum solar output at noon on a perfectly clear day, in the spring or fall when neither heating or air conditioning is needed in homes, and in a neighborhood that uses natural gas for water heating (like most U.S. homes). The electrical load at noon for a home without heating, cooling, or water heating is about 1 kW (Pratt et al. 1993). In this case, reverse power flow will occur when the average home in the neighborhood has a solar PV array whose output exceeds 1 kW on a perfectly clear day. The daily solar energy produced by a solar PV array varies by location due to latitude and cloud cover. To estimate the annual energy production of a 1-kW solar PV array, we begin with the annual average annual average incident solar radiation on a south-facing surface (with an optimal tilt, equal to the latitude), indicated for various locations in the United States by the color coding on the map in Figure 3.9. The annual energy produced by a 1-kW array is directly proportional to the average incident solar radiation, as described in Attachment 1, Mechanism H. This production is expressed as the solar fraction of the annual energy requirement of such a home that is supplied by the solar PV array. (i.e., the annual solar energy produced divided by the annual electricity consumed by the home (8600 kWh/year, including air conditioning; see Attachment 1, Mechanism H). The solar fraction is equivalent to the local’s RPS from solar resources. 3.32PDF Image | The Smart Grid: An Estimation of the Energy and CO2 Benefits
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