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126V 120V 114V Voltage profile during cloud cover Voltage profile without cloud cover Feeder Length Figure H.3. Distribution Feeder Profile With Large Clusters of Solar PV With and Without Cloud Cover H.2.3 Estimation of the Limits to Solar PV Penetration To estimate how much solar generation can exist in a typical residential neighborhood before reverse power flow can be expected, we examine a worst-case scenario. This consists of maximum solar output on a perfectly clear day at noon, in the spring or fall when heating and air conditioning are not needed in homes, and in a neighborhood that uses natural gas for water heating (like most in the United States) The total electrical load for a home at noon without heating, cooling, or water heating is about 1 kW (Pratt et al. 1993. The average electricity consumption for an average U.S. home in 2001 was 10,656 kWh/year, and the average share by end use is shown Table H.1.1 Table H.1. Share of Electricity Consumption by End Use in an Average U.S. Home These include all types of homes: single-family detached, mobile homes, and apartments, owned and rented. The average annual electricity consumption for a single-family detached owner-occupied home was estimated by multiplying 10,656 kWh/year by the ratio of 1) the total electrical energy consumed in such homes to 2) the total energy consumed for all types of homes in 2005 (DOE/EIA 2005). This produces an estimated consumption of 12,341 kWh/year. To determine the total consumption by end use for the average single-family detached owner-occupied home, the end-use shares in Table H.1 were multiplied by this estimate, with the results shown in Table H.2. Table H.2. End-Use Electricity Consumption for Average U.S. Single-Family Detached Home (kWh/year) 1 2001 is the latest year for which such breakdowns by share are available. H.4 Space Heat Water Heat Air Conditioning Other Other + Air Conditioning 10.3% 11.4% 15.8% 62.5% 78.3% Total Space Heat Water Heat Air Conditioning Other Other + Air Conditioning 12,355 1,248 1,124 1,977 7,993 8,599PDF Image | The Smart Grid: An Estimation of the Energy and CO2 Benefits
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