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fly. Further details are provided in Attachment 1, Mechanism H. Estimates of potential reductions in electricity and CO2 emissions were not made for this mechanism, and there is not an obvious basis for estimating the indirect benefits of removing a barrier such as this. Further refinement of this crude estimate and creating a way to value it is a recommendation for further analysis. H.3 Summary Solar PV is an attractive approach for obtaining zero-emissions energy production because it readily scales to the needed level. This makes it ideal for applications ranging from relatively small residential rooftop applications to larger commercial and industrial rooftop applications. The existing electricity infrastructure can support a limited penetration of solar PV with the current operating schemes, what that limit is will vary from utility to utility. The smart grid holds the promise of allowing much greater penetrations of solar PV and thus much greater reduction in emissions. Calculation of the estimated reductions in electricity and CO2 emissions were not made. It is estimated that the reductions would be similar to those made for wind integration as either resource, alone or in combination, could be used to satisfy a 20% RPS. H.4 Recommendations for Additional Work and/or Consideration Exactly when a distribution feeder transitions from solar PV helping the system, Figure H.2, to solar PV becoming a limiting factor, Figure H.3, cannot be simply stated. At some point, there is a penetration level when the addition of more solar PV will have detrimental impacts on the system. The additional variability of the solar PV generation could even require additional fossil-fuel-powered plants to be run, which would negate the emission reductions of the solar PV arrays. Additional research is needed to determine what the feasible limit is with existing technologies, and to determine new operating strategies that allow for greater penetration of solar PV. Smart grid technologies could allow for the active adjustment of the voltage profile along the length of the feeder. The voltage could be adjusted through a number of mechanisms, including active control of shunt capacitors and regulators, active control of solar PV inverters to operate outside the unity power factor (Ton et al. 2008), and coordinated control of energy storage devices. Figure H.4 shows a potential smart grid scheme where the voltage profile is automatically maintained within the proper limits. When there is no cloud cover, an energy storage device absorbs energy, acting as a load, thus reducing voltage. When there is cloud cover, the regulator slightly increases voltage at the substation and the energy storage discharges power acting as a generator, thus increasing voltage. H.6PDF Image | The Smart Grid: An Estimation of the Energy and CO2 Benefits
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