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Materials 2020, 13, 4980 2 of 12 though efficiency and power output [6] is limited compared to electrostatic or triboelectric energy harvesting devices [6]. Piezoelectric [3,7], electrostatic [8], electromagnetic [9] and triboelectric [10–12] energy harvesting technologies rely on the use of wasted mechanical energy (wind, wave, vibrations and even body movements) to produce electricity. These mechanical harvesters can be based on polymer and polymer composite materials, offering unique properties, such as lightweight and flexibility, combined with easy integration and environmentally friendly processability [3]. The power density per area of triboelectric devices is the largest among the aforementioned systems, reaching powers as high as 500 W·m−2 and an energy conversion efficiency of 70% has been demonstrated [9,13], further they are lightweight and cost-effective [13]. Compared with piezoelectric devices, triboelectricity can be more suited for environmentally friendly energy production for portable devices [3], low-power devices in remote or inaccessible places [14] or for needed IoT network of sensors [14]. Another advantage of the triboelectric phenomenon is the wide range of materials that can be used in the distinct triboelectric mechanical modes: contact-separation, lateral sliding, single electrode and free-standing triboelectric layer mode [5,14]. Being a process that can be carried out entirely with polymers and the corresponding composites, the overall properties of the materials can be tailored for each specific application, including dimensions, geometry and optical transparency. The triboelectric power output can also be strongly improved by tailoring the intrinsic properties of the polymers by synthesis and functionalization [15] or by reinforcing with high-dielectric or other functional fillers [9]. Further, geometrical dimensions (mainly the thickness) and roughness of the materials can also be designed to maximize the generated energy. Literature reports different materials and order within the triboelectric series [9,16,17] in terms of relative triboelectric charge providing/receiving characteristics. The most interesting triboelectric materials are those with easy lose and gain electrons when in contact, leading to higher charge density between two different materials [18]. The most common materials in the literature are several polymers, but also some metals and crystalline materials [17–20]. Positive (losing electrons) materials include Mica (silicate) and glass, polyamide 6-6 (PA66) and polyamide 11 (PA11), polyethylene (PE) silk, aluminum, paper and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) [9,12,16,17,20]. Negative materials (gaining electrons) include polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE or Teflon), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyimide (Kapton), polystyrene, rubber-like or polyurethane (PU), among others [12,17–20]. The surface charge density of the triboelectric mode depends on the pair of the selected materials and range change from some nC.m−2 to mC.m−2 [18], being higher for polymeric pairs compared to metallic ones. Triboelectric energy generation optimization includes, in addition to materials selection, tailoring the functional properties of the material reinforcing with dielectric fillers, selection of the triboelectric mode among contact-separation, sliding, single electrode or freestanding modes and, finally, the electronic circuit to harvest the electrical energy [14,18–21]. Ceramic or low amounts of conductive nanofillers [19,20] can be used to improve the dielectric properties and, correspondingly, the triboelectric performance of the materials. Triboelectric modes and electronic circuits allow the combination of two distinct modes or even, combine the piezoelectric and thermoelectric effects [21,22]. In this work, the triboelectric properties of the different materials, mostly polymers and polymer composites are evaluated. Pairs of materials in different places in the triboelectric series are evaluated, together with materials prepared by different technologies (solvent based, hot pressing and commercial materials). Finally, high-dielectric ceramic nanomaterial (barium titanate- BT) have been used to improve the dielectric and, consequently, the triboelectric power output of one of the materials. In this way, a complete set of materials and processing conditions are considered, allowing triboelectric output understanding, material selection and tailoring for specific applications.PDF Image | Triboelectric Energy Harvesting vs Polymer-Based Materials
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