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• For lower temperatures, ORC or Kalina cycle systems are used. They can be applied at temperatures lower than for steam turbines, and they are more efficient in moderate temperature ranges. • Kalina systems have the highest theoretical efficiencies. Their complexity makes them generally suitable for large power systems of several megawatts or greater. • ORC systems can be economically sized in small, sub-megawatt packages, and they are also well suited for using air-cooled condensers, making them appropriate for applications such as pipeline compressor stations that do not have access to water. In addition to Rankine cycle systems, there are a number of advanced technologies in the research and development stage that can generate electricity directly from heat, and that could in the future provide additional options for power generation from waste heat sources. These technologies include thermoelectric, piezoelectric, thermionic, and thermo-photovoltaic (thermo-PV) devices. Several of these have undergone prototype testing in automotive applications and are under development for industrial heat recovery.12 Applications Economically feasible WHP applications are generally based on recovering waste heat from combustion exhaust streams with temperatures above 500 oF. Industrial processes that produce these temperatures include calcining operations (cement, lime, alumina, and petroleum coke), metal melting, glass melting, petroleum fluid heaters, thermal oxidizers, and exothermic synthesis processes. Key WHP opportunities within these operations are provided below: 1. Primary Metals – Primary metals manufacturing involves a large number of high-temperature processes from which waste heat can be recovered. Steel mills, for example, have various high-temperature heat- recovery opportunities. In integrated mills, waste heat can be recovered from coke ovens, blast furnaces for iron production, and basic oxygen furnaces for steel production. There are also opportunities to recover waste heat from electric arc furnaces. In the aluminum industry there is energy recovery potential from the exhaust of the Hall Héroult13 cells and secondary melting processes. Metal foundries have a variety of waste heat sources, such as melting furnace exhaust, ladle pre- heating, core baking, pouring, shot-blasting, castings cooling, heat treating, and quenching. 2. Nonmetallic Mineral Product Manufacturing – There are a number of strong opportunities for WHP in this sector. Calcining in rotary kilns is a high-temperature process that is used in the 12 Engineering Scoping Study of Thermoelectric Generator Systems for Industrial Waste Heat Recovery, Terry Hendricks, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, William Choate, BCS Incorporated, Report to U.S. DOE Industrial Technologies Program, November 2006. 13 The Hall–Héroult process is used for the production of aluminum. Port Arthur Steam Energy WHP from Petroleum Coke Plant A heat recovery boiler/steam turbine WHP project at a petroleum coke plant in Port Arthur, Texas, recovers energy from 2,000 oF exhaust from three petroleum- coke calcining kilns. The project produces 450,000 lb/hr of steam for process use at an adjacent refinery and 5 MW of power. The project creates an estimated 159,000 tons per year of CO2 emissions savings. Waste Heat Boiler, Unit 4 4PDF Image | waste heat to power systems
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