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compared with Nafion 115 [75]. There are still other methods existing or being explored to improve the membrane performances not exhibited in this review. More effective strategies will be developed constantly, and the large-scale application of RFBs is being realized gradually. Part of the typical membrane materials and their properties are listed in Table 1 for brief comparison. 5. Conclusions and outlook Improving the properties of the membrane materials is the key point to obtain high performances in RFBs. There is significant progress in developing the effective modifying method of the membranes in recent decades. One of the main strategies is con- trolling the pore size to change the ion selectivity, using the different radii between protons and transition metal cations and satisfying the results have been achieved. This strategy is limited by the great dependence on choosing the electrolyte containing the ions whose radius meets the requirement. Hydrophilic modifica- tion as another strategy is an effective way to improve proton conductivity of the membranes, but it is also facile to lead to the crossover of transition metal cations. Other methods such as introducing charge groups on the membranes and constructing LBL structures are also summarized in this review. To realize the wide application of RFBs, there is still a long way to go by exploring membrane materials with more superior proper- ties. First, the cost of the membrane materials should be reduced so that the competitiveness of RFBs could be promoted compared with other electrochemical systems for large-scale energy storage. Then, ion selectivity needs to be improved to ensure the long cycling life of RFBs. Besides, the pore size should not be too large Table 1 Comparison of properties of Material Electrolyte PAN All-vanadium PVC/Si All-vanadium PES All-vanadium PES/SPEEK All-vanadium PES/PVP All-vanadium PSF All-vanadium PES All-vanadium PES All-vanadium PVDF All-vanadium typical membrane materials. CEEEVE 95% 76% e 89.2% 78.1% 87.0% 92.8% 78.4% e Current Density Ref 80 mA cm2 [36] 50 mA cm2 [40] J. Sheng et al. / Materials Today Nano 7 (2019) 100044 7 Fig. 5. (a) Proposed membrane transport mechanism. Reproduced from Wei et al. [61] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) The mechanism of membrane formation by controllable crystallization processes. Reproduced from Li et al. [62] with permission from the Elsevier. (c) Hydrophilic ion transport networks and the chemical reaction between PVP and PVDF by K2S2O8 radical initiation. Reproduced from Cao et al. [68] with permission from the Elsevier. PVP, poly(vinylpyrrolidone); PVDF, polyvinylidene fluoride. 91.12% e 99% 81% 90.3% 78.4% 98.63% 91.41% 98.95% 89.69% 95% 78.6% 86.10% 82% 86.8% 92.68% 90.65% 82.7% [47] [51] [56] CE, coulombic efficiency; EE, energy efficiency; sulfone; PVP, poly(vinylpyrrolidone); PVDF, polyvinylidene fluoride; PES, poly- ethersulfone; PVC, polyvinyl chloride; SPEEK, sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone); PAN, polyacrylonitrile. 80 mA cm2 80 mA cm2 140 mA cm2 80 mA cm2 [57] 80 mA cm2 [59] 80 mA cm2 [60] 80 mA cm2 [61] VE, voltage efficiency; PSF, poly-PDF Image | membrane for aqueous redox flow batteries
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