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system, the steam is exhausted from the turbine at the lowest practical pressure, through the use of a water-cooled condenser to extract the maximum amount of energy from the steam. In CHP plants or district heating systems, the steam is exhausted from the steam turbine at a pressure high enough to be used by the industrial process or the district heating system. In CHP configuration, there is no condenser and the steam and condensate, after exiting the process, is returned to the boiler. There are numerous options in the steam supply, pressure, temperature and extent, if any, for reheating steam that has been partially expanded from high pressure. Steam systems vary from low pressure lines used primarily for space heating and food preparation, to medium pressure and temperature used in industrial processes and cogeneration, and to high pressure and temperature use in utility power generation. Generally, as the system gets larger the economics favor higher pressures and temperatures, along with their associated heavier walled boiler tubes and more expensive alloys. 4.3.2.1 Boiler Steam turbines differ from reciprocating engines, internal combustion engines, and gas turbines in that the fuel is burned in a piece of equipment, the boiler, which is separate from the power generation equipment. The energy is transferred from the boiler to the steam turbine generator by an intermediate medium, typically steam under pressure. As mentioned previously, this separation of functions enables steam turbines to operate with an enormous variety of fuels. The topic of boiler fuels, their handling, combustion and the cleanup of the effluents of such combustion is a separate and complex issue that is addressed in the fuels and emissions sections of this report. For sizes up to (approximately) 40 MW, horizontal industrial boilers are built. This enables them to be shipped via rail car, with considerable cost savings and improved quality, as the cost and quality of factory labor is usually both lower in cost and greater in quality than field labor. Large shop-assembled boilers are typically capable of firing only gas or distillate oil, as there is inadequate residence time for complete combustion of most solid and residual fuels in such designs. Large, field-erected industrial boilers firing solid and residual fuels bear a resemblance to utility boilers except for the actual solid fuel injection. Large boilers usually burn pulverized coal; however, intermediate and small boilers burning coal or solid fuel employ various types of solids feeders. 4.3.2.2 Steam Turbine In the steam turbine, the steam is expanded to a lower pressure providing shaft power to drive a generator or run a mechanical process. There are two distinct designs for steam turbines – impulse and reaction turbines. The difference between these two designs is shown in Figure 4-2. On impulse turbines, the steam jets are directed at the turbine's bucket shaped rotor blades where the pressure exerted by the jets causes the rotor to rotate and the velocity of the steam to reduce as it imparts its kinetic energy to the blades. The next series of fixed blades reverses the direction of the steam before it passes to the second row of moving blades. In Reaction turbines, the rotor blades of the reaction turbine are shaped more like airfoils, arranged such that the cross section of the chambers formed between the fixed blades diminishes from the inlet side towards the exhaust side of the blades. The chambers between the rotor blades essentially form nozzles so that as the steam progresses through the chambers its velocity increases while at the Catalog of CHP Technologies 4–4 Steam TurbinesPDF Image | EPA CHP Technologies Combustion Turbines Section 4
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