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See Rennings (2000) and Smith (2015) for discussion of the drivers and barriers associated with green innovations. Drivers: According to Rennings (2000) there are potentially three types of driver for green innovations, namely technology push, market pull and regulatory push. It is likely that the drivers in this case will be a combination of regulatory push and technological push factors, although students might well want to discuss the possibility that market pull would also be a driver. Perhaps surprisingly there is at present no real regulatory push in the sense that there are only limited requirements for the airlines or the manufacturers to reduce their emissions from aircraft. However significant changes are on the way. For example, the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO), the agency that oversees civil aviation, recently put forward the first efficiency standard for aircraft for the United Nations to approve (Reals (2016) in February 2016. Given the rapidly rising level of emissions from aircraft and increasing concerns about climate change, further regulations covering aircraft emissions are likely. Certainly by 2030 one could expect to see regulations requiring significant reductions in emissions. There is also an element of technology push. This is associated with improvements in design, especially in the field of aerodynamics, which have led to improvements in fan blade design. (It can be useful to get students to look at modern passenger aircraft and compare them with those of the 1960s – fan blades look different and one rarely sees large amounts of smoke being produced on take-off today). The other technological change is in the area of new materials. The introduction of carbon fibre has permitted the development of much more efficient and safer fan blades. Barriers: These are likely to be technological, economic, and institutional. As with most technological innovations one would expect the technological barriers to be the main ones. While these are undoubtedly important, and include aspects such as safety, noise and maintenance requirements, students should be encouraged to explore possible economic and institutional barriers. The economic barriers include the enormous cost of developing both new engines and new aircraft and the problem of ‘sunk costs’, such as the large sums airlines have invested in maintenance facilities for jet engines. However institutional barriers are also likely to be important (see Scott, 2013). The institutional barriers are likely to be ones associated with the structure of the airline industry. It is highly competitive and very cyclical. Consequently major investment decisions like switching to a new type of aircraft fitted with a new propulsion system 18PDF Image | Sustainable and Green Engine (SAGE) Aircraft Engine of the Future
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