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2 G. Zhu et al. induction. It features unparalleled advantages over other developed existing technologies, including high power den- sity, light weight, small size, low cost, flexibility and even transparency [18,19]. Since its first report in 2012, it has evolved very rapidly and attracted extensive research inter- ests on a global scale. Basic principles and modes have been proposed; various device structures for harvesting a broad range of mechanical energy have been reported; output power has been dramatically promoted through advanced device designing; and attractive applications of this technol- ogy in energy and sensing have been demonstrated. In this review, we will first have a concise discussion on fundamentals of the physical model of the TENG, which will be followed by an introduction of the basic operating modes. Then we will have detailed elaboration on how to develop high-performance devices. Our recent works will be shown to illustrate each designing strategy. Challenges and prospects will be presented in the end. Fundamentals Triboelectric effect is a type of charge transfer by which any two materials, after contact with each other, become electrically charged in opposite signs. The origin of this effect is still shrouded in unsettled questions; and the type of the charge species is still under debate [20–24]. However, it is known that the triboelectric charges are only confined on the surface of materials. They neither recombine nor get annihilated. Instead, they stay in a quasi-permanent way for an extended period of time although minor charge migration occurs [25,26]. The effect has been utilized in applications including electrostatic separations, self-assembly, photocopy and laser printing [27–29]. It is because triboelectric charges are immobile and difficult to be conducted away that tribo- electric effect has not been applied in power generation, though it was used to produce high voltage. The key innovation of the TENG is to incorporate electro- static induction into an electricity-generating process. Con- ductive electrodes that can provide mobile charges are fabricated on the back side of the triboelectric charges. In a TENG, it is induced charges on the back electrodes instead of triboelectric charges that actually form the output current. When two pieces of materials carrying opposite triboelectric charges make relative motion, electric potential difference created between the two electrodes causes transient flow of induced charges. As a result, electric current is produced, delivering effective output power to a load if connected between the electrodes. In this process, mechanical energy is thus converted into electrical energy. The form of the relative motion can be diverse, making the TENG capable of harvest- ing various types of mechanical energy. Device structures Contact mode Basic energy-generation process The contact mode features a motion direction that is perpen- dicular to the charged surfaces in a TENG. Our work in 2012 was the first to propose an accurate and clear description of the energy-generation process [15]. Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and polyimide (Kapton) were used as a pair of contact materials. In an open-circuit condition, exchange of induced charges cannot occur between the two electrodes. Shown in Fig. 1, no triboelectric charges are generated in the original state Fig. 1 Sketch that illustrates the operating principle of the contact mode. (a) Open-circuit condition. (b) Short-circuit condition. Please cite this article as: G. Zhu, et al., Triboelectric nanogenerators as a new energy technology: From fundamentals, devices, to applications, Nano Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2014.11.050PDF Image | Triboelectric nanogenerators as a new energy technology
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