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Three research needs stand out as a consequence: • It is needed to rationally develop catalysts that are active and selective under conditions that are currently not accessible. Fundamental understanding of the free energy landscapes of the desired reaction pathways on a qualitative and quantitative level is to be acquired by combining kinetic measurements with advanced spectroscopy and theory and characterizing the catalyst, its active sites, and the chemical transformation occurring at these active sites under realistic conditions. • Catalysts are dynamically evolving solids and molecular entities that need to be character- ized during the dynamic and frequently reversibly changing operating conditions. Methods to monitor and to synthetically control these changes and their relation to catalytic transfor- mation are needed. • Flexible sized, robust, and modular reactor concepts are needed to maximize heat and mass transfer. To realize the target, reactors need to be optimally designed for the catalysts used for a particular reaction. 4.3 State of the art, challenges, and goals for specific syngas chemistries Seven clusters of chemical transformations from syngas are addressed below (Figure 4.2). All of them are currently developed to industrial level and have already seen impressive progress on catalyst, reactor, and process level. 4.3.1 Fischer–Tropsch synthesis Fischer–Tropsch synthesis is a heterogeneous catalyzed polymerization converting syngas into a wide spectrum of hydrocarbons [2]. Cobalt, Ru, Fe, and Ni are active catalysts, but only Fe and Co are currently used industrially. The high intrinsic selectivity towards long chain hydrocarbons makes Co-based FTS solids the preferred catalyst for gas to liquids processes. Fe-based catalysts, however, have superior properties over Co-based catalysts, especially for H2- poor and CO2-containing syngas. The key advantage of Fe catalysts is that their product slate is more directed to short-chain (unsaturated) hydrocarbons and short-chain oxygenates, leading to 41 Figure 4.2: Processes from CO/CO2 and H2 mixtures in a future, carbon-neutral environment.PDF Image | sustainable production of fuels and chemicals
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