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16 2.2.2 Organic Rankine Cyclein Internal Combustion Engines The utilisation of ORC systems in mobile applications is not a new idea. The first concept on a train wascommercialised in the 1920s, taking advantage of the price difference between diesel and coal [57]. Unfortunately, this system quickly became uncompetitive because the difference was unprofitable [58]. Interest in WHR can be traced back to the 1973 energy crisis when oil prices rose significantly [59]. However, several systems were developed, mostly for trucks or marine applications, and then interest dissipated until the 2000s when automotive manufacturers again became interested in the technology [58]. In 1976, Patel and Doyle [60] built an ORC system prototype that was used as a bottoming cycle in a Mack 676 diesel engine. They stated that at the peak power condition, 36 additional horsepower was produced, resulting in a gain of 13% in power without additional fuel. However, only few commercial ORC power plants have been established since the 1980s [61]. Studieson ORC technology in ICEs have increased since the last decade. In 2007, Endo et al. [62] installed a Rankine cycle in a 2.0 L Honda Stream SI engine using exhaust gas and engine coolant as heat sources. The results of their vehicle testing showed that thermal efficiency increased from 28.9% to 32.7% (13.2%) at constant speed (100 km/h). A project by the DOE Super Truck Program [63] demonstrated a brake thermal efficiency of over 50%. Quoilin [64] conducted an experimental test of a small-scale ORC system using hot air at a temperature ranging from 150 °C to 200°C as the heat source. His results showed a maximum cycle efficiency of 7.4%. Ringler et al. [65] analysed the potential of Rankine cycle as an additional power generation process that uses the waste heat of a car engine. Their experimental test showed that WHR can produce an additional power output of approximately 10% at typical highway cruising speeds. Hence, on the basis of the above selective references, ORCs are very promising technologies in WHR systems. Moreover, different heat sources can be utilised, namely, engine exhaust gas, EGR and engine coolant. Nonetheless, the weight of the ORC system and the engine power are two of the most critical parameters that affect fuel consumption and harmful exhaust emissions [66]. Inertia and rolling resistance increase with thePDF Image | Automotive Radial Turbine Expander Design WHR
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