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80 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage table 2.2 Typical properties of gas streams that are already input to a capture process (Sources: Chauvel and Lefebvre, 1989; Maddox and Morgan, 1998; IEA GHG, 2002a). Source CO2 concentration % vol Pressure of gas stream mPaa CO2 partial pressure mPa Chemical reaction(s) • Ammonia productionb 18 2.8 0.5 • Ethylene oxide 8 2.5 0.2 • Hydrogen productionb 15 - 20 2.2 - 2.7 0.3 - 0.5 • Methanol productionb 10 2.7 0.27 Other processes • Natural gas processing 2 - 65 0.9 - 8 0.05 - 4.4 a b 0.1 MPa = 1 bar The concentration corresponds to high operating pressure for the steam methane reformer. refineries, gas-processing plants, cement plants, iron and steel plants and those industrial facilities where fossil fuels are used as feedstock, namely ammonia, ethylene, ethylene oxide and hydrogen. This global inventory contains over 14 thousand emission sources with individual CO2 emissions ranging from 2.5 tCO2 yr-1 to 55.2 MtCO2 yr-1. The information for each single source includes location (city, country and region), annual CO2 emissions and CO2 emission concentrations. The coordinates (latitude/longitude) of 74% of the sources are also provided. The total emissions from these 14 thousand sources amount to over 13 GtCO2 yr-1. Almost 7,900 stationary sources with individual emissions greater than or equal to 0.1 MtCO2 per year have been identified globally. These emissions included over 90% of the total CO2 emissions from large point sources in 2000. Some 6,000 emission sources with emissions below 0.1 MtCO2 yr-1 were also identified, but they represent only a small fraction of the total emissions volume and were therefore excluded from further discussion in this chapter. There are also a number of regional and country-specific CO2 emission estimates for large sources covering China, Japan, India, North West Europe and Australia (Hibino, 2003; Garg et al., 2002; Christensen et al., 2001, Bradshaw et al., 2002) that can be drawn upon. Table 2.3 summarizes the information concerning large stationary sources according to the type of emission generating process. In the case of the petrochemical and gas-processing industries, the CO2 concentration listed in this table refers to the stream leaving the capture process. The largest amount of CO2 emitted from large stationary sources originates from fossil fuel combustion for power generation, with an average annual emission of 3.9 MtCO2 per source. Substantial amounts of CO2 arise in the oil and gas processing industries while cement production is the largest emitter from the industrial sector. In the USA, 12 ethanol plants with a total productive capacity of 5.3 billion litres yr-1 each produce CO2 at rates in excess of 0.1 MtCO2 yr-1 (Kheshgi and Prince, 2005); in Brazil, where ethanol production totalled over 14 billion litres per year during 2003-2004, the average distillery productive capacity is 180 million litres yr-1. The corresponding average fermentation CO2 production rate is 0.14 MtCO2 yr-1, with the largest distillery producing nearly 10 times the average. sector. CO2 concentrations in the flue gas from cement kilns depend on the production process and type of cement produced and are usually higher than in power generation processes (IEA GHG, 1999). Existing cement kilns in developing countries such as China and India are often relatively small. However, the quantity of CO2 produced by a new large cement kiln can be similar to that of a power station boiler. Integrated steel mills globally account for over 80% of CO2 emissions from steel production (IEA GHG, 2000b). About 70% of the carbon input to an integrated steel mill is present in the blast furnace gas, which is used as a fuel gas within the steel mill. CO2 could be captured before or after combustion of this gas. The CO2 concentration after combustion in air would be about 27% by volume, significantly higher than in the flue gas from power stations. Other process streams within a steel mill may also be suitable candidates for CO2 capture before or after combustion. For example, the off-gas from an oxygen-steel furnace typically contains 16% CO2 and 70% carbon monoxide. The off-gases produced during the fermentation of sugars to ethanol consist of almost pure CO2 with a few impurities. This gas stream is generated at a rate of 0.76 kg CO2-1 and is typically available at atmospheric pressure (0.1 MPa) (Kheshgi and Prince, 2005). CO2 also occurs as an undesirable product that must be removed in some petrochemical processes, particularly those using synthesis gas as an intermediate or as an impurity in natural gas. The properties of the raw gas streams from which CO2 is customarily removed in some of these industries are shown in Table 2.2. It can be seen from Table 2.1 that the CO2 partial pressures of flue gases are at least one order of magnitude less than the CO2 partial pressures of the streams arising from the processes listed in Table 2.2. This implies that CO2 recovery from fuel combustion streams will be comparatively much more difficult. 2.2.1.3 Scale of emissions A specific detailed dataset has been developed for CO2 stationary sources for 2000, giving their geographical distribution by process type and country (IEA GHG, 2002a). The stationary sources of CO2 in this database comprise power plants, oilPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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