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Chapter 3: Capture of CO2 145 capture). For example, the efficiency of a modern coal-based plant with capture is close to many older coal-burning plants currently in service. Replacing the latter with the former would thus reduce CO2 emissions significantly with little or no net change in plant coal consumption or related solid waste impacts. In some cases, there could in fact be net reductions in other plant emissions, in support of clean air goals. If, however, the deployment of new CCS plants is delayed significantly, older existing plants could well be replaced by modern high- efficiency plants without capture. Such plants also would be built to provide additional capacity in regions with high electricity growth rates, such as in China and other parts of Asia today. A decade or two from now, the fleet of ‘existing’ plants in those regions would thus look very different from the present. Accordingly, the environmental and resource impacts of additional new plants with CO2 capture would have to be assessed in the context of the future situation. Dangerous Goods, International Maritime Organization/ International Maritime Dangerous Goods and International Civil Aviation Organization / International Air Transport Association, all classify carbon dioxide in class 2.2, non-flammable, non- corrosive and non-poisonous gases. In US federal regulations, carbon dioxide is not listed as a product in the Clean Water Act (CWA 307 and 311), Clean Air Act (CAA 112) or the Toxics Release Inventory. In other international regulations carbon dioxide is not classified in the European Inventory of Existing Commercial Chemical Substance or other international lists, but in Canada is classified as a compressed gas (class A) on the Canadian Energy Pipeline Association Dangerous Substances List (Hazardous Substances Data Bank, 2002). 3.6.3 Health and safety risks associated with carbon dioxide processing The effects of exposure to carbon dioxide are described in Annex I. However, a risk assessment that includes an understanding of both exposure and effects is required to characterize the risk for various situations associated with carbon dioxide processing (European Chemicals Bureau, 2003); see the following two sections for established risk management practices. The most probable routes of human exposure to carbon dioxide are inhalation or skin contact. The need for a risk-based approach is clear from the following two descriptions. Carbon dioxide and its products of degradation are not legally classified as a toxic substance; is non-hazardous on inhalation, is a non-irritant and does not sensitize or permeate the skin. However, chronic effects on humans follow from long-term exposure to airborne carbon dioxide concentrations of between 0.5 and 1% resulting in metabolic acidosis and increased calcium deposits in soft tissues. The substance is toxic to the cardiovascular system and upper respiratory tract at concentrations above 3%. Sensitive populations to elevated carbon dioxide levels are described in Annex I. The product risk assessment process is therefore necessary as with any other chemical use to determine the risk and establish the necessary risk management processes. As an asphyxiate carbon dioxide presents the greatest danger. If atmospheric oxygen is displaced such that oxygen concentration is 15-16%, signs of asphyxia will be noted. Skin contact with dry ice has caused serious frostbites and blisters (Hazardous Substances Data Bank, 2002). Protective equipment and clothing required in the processing industries include full face-piece respirators to prevent eye contact and appropriate personal protective clothing to protect the skin from becoming frozen by the liquid. 3.6.4 Plant design principles and guidelines used by governments, industries and financiers New plant facilities like those envisioned for carbon dioxide are subject to design guidelines for the petrochemical industry as determined by relevant authorities. One example is the European Unions’ Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) directive requiring the application of the principles Because comparisons of different plant types require a specific context (or scenario) to be meaningful, this chapter has only focused on characterizing the effects of CO2 capture systems relative to the same type of power plant and not the type of infrastructure it would replace (either currently, or in a future carbon-constrained world). If other systems such as the use of renewable energy, or electricity and synfuels cogenerated from coal, find significant applications, those systems too would require more comprehensive comparative life-cycle assessments of resource use and impacts that are not currently available. Chapter 8, however, assesses overall energy use impacts for illustrative scenarios of CCS deployment in competition with other carbon mitigation options. 3.6.2 Issues related to the classification of carbon dioxide as a product As a current commercial product, carbon dioxide is subject to classification and regulations. The classification of carbon dioxide is dependent on its physical state (gas, liquid or solid), its concentration, impurities present and other criteria established by national legislative classification in different regions of the world. During the capture and concentration process, the quality properties can change the classification of the substance. A detailed assessment of carbon dioxide physical and chemical properties is provided in Annex I. The environmental, monitoring, risk and legal aspects associated with carbon dioxide handling and storage are well established in the processing industry. However, much larger volumes are targeted for carbon dioxide processing for purposes of CCS than the volumes handled at present. On a local and regional level, additional emergency response and other regulatory measures can be expected in the future, depending on the rate of development of CCS. It is anticipated that human capacity will be developed to assess the monitoring, risk and legal aspects as required by the market. At present, carbon dioxide typically occurs and is mainly traded as a non-flammable gas (US Department of Transportation classification class 2.2). The classification system of TransportPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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