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Chapter 6: Ocean storage 287 3000 m, liquid CO2 is denser than the surrounding sea water and sinks. CO2 nozzles could be engineered to produce large droplets that would sink to the sea floor or small droplets that would dissolve in the sea water before contacting the sea floor. Natural ocean mixing and droplet motion are expected to prevent concentrations of dissolved CO2 from approaching saturation, except near liquid CO2 that has been intentionally placed in topographic depressions on the sea floor. Solid. Solid CO2 is denser than sea water and thus would tend to sink. Solid CO2 surfaces would dissolve in sea water at a speed of about 0.2 cm hr–1 (inferred from Aya et al., 1997). Thus small quantities of solid CO2 would dissolve completely before reaching the sea floor; large masses could potentially reach the sea floor before complete dissolution. Hydrate. CO2 hydrate is a form of CO2 in which a cage of water molecules surrounds each molecule of CO2. It can form in average ocean waters below about 400 m depth. A fully formed crystalline CO2 hydrate is denser than sea water and will sink (Aya et al., 2003). The surface of this mass would dissolve at a speed similar to that of solid CO2, about 0.2 cm hr–1 (0.47 to 0.60 μm s–1; Rehder et al., 2004; Teng et al., 1999), and thus droplets could be produced that either dissolve completely in the sea water or sink to the sea floor. Pure CO2 hydrate is a hard crystalline solid and will not flow through a pipe; however a paste-like composite of hydrate and sea water may be extruded (Tsouris et al., 2004), and this will have a dissolution rate intermediate between those of CO2 droplets and a pure CO2 hydrate. Figure 6.11 Simulated CO2 enriched sea water plumes (left panels; indicated by pH) and CO2 droplet plumes (right panels; indicated by kgCO2 m–3) created by injecting 1 cm and 12 cm liquid CO2 droplets (top and bottom panels, respectively) into the ocean from fixed nozzles (elapsed time is 30 min; injection rate is 1.0 kgCO2 s–1; ocean current speed is 5 cm s–1; Alendal and Drange, 2001). By varying droplet size, the plume can be made to sink (top panels) or rise (bottom panels). releases of small droplets at slow rates produce smaller plumes than release of large droplets at rapid rates. Where CO2 is denser than seawater, larger droplet sizes would allow the CO2 to sink more deeply. CO2 injected at intermediate depths could increase the density of CO2-enriched sea water sufficiently to generate a sinking plume that would carry the CO2 into the deep ocean (Liro et al., 1992; Haugan and Drange, 1992). Apparent coriolis forces would operate on such a plume, turning it towards the right in the Northern Hemisphere and towards the left in the Southern Hemisphere (Alendal et al., 1994). The channelling effects of submarine canyons or other topographic features could help steer dense plumes to greater depth with minimal dilution (Adams et al., 1995). The far field is defined as the region in which the concentration of added CO2 is low enough such that the resulting density increase does not significantly affect transport, and thus CO2 may be considered a passive tracer in the ocean. Typically, this would apply within a few kilometres of an injection point in midwater, but if CO2 is released at the sea floor and guided along topography, concentration may remain high and influence transport for several tens of kilometres. CO2 is transported by ocean currents and undergoes further mixing and dilution with other water masses (Alendal and Drange, 2001). Most of this mixing and transport occurs along surfaces of nearly constant density, because buoyancy forces inhibit vertical mixing in a stratified fluid. Over time, a release of CO2 becomes increasingly diluted but affects ever greater volumes of water. 6.2.1.4 Behaviour of injected CO2 in the near field: CO2-rich plumes As it leaves the near field, CO2 enriched water will reside at a depth determined by its density. The oceans are generally stably stratified with density increasing with depth. Parcels of water tend to move upward or downward until they reach water of the same density, then there are no buoyancy forces to induce further motion. The dynamics of CO2-rich plumes determine both the depth at which the CO2 leaves the near-field environment and the amount of initial dilution (and consequently the amount of pH change). When CO2 is released in any form into seawater, the CO2 can move upward or downward depending on whether the CO2 is less or more dense than the surrounding seawater. Drag forces transfer momentum from the CO2 droplets to the surrounding water column producing motion in the adjacent water, initially in the direction of droplet motion. Simultaneously, the CO2 dissolves into the surrounding water, making the surrounding water denser and more likely to sink. As the CO2-enriched water moves, it mixes with surrounding water that is less enriched in CO2, leading to additional dilution and diminishing the density contrast between the CO2-enriched water and the surrounding water. 6.2.1.5 Behaviour of injected CO2 in the far field CO2 releases could be engineered to produce CO2 plumes with different characteristics (Chen et al., 2003; Sato and Sato, 2002; Alendal and Drange, 2001; Crounse et al., 2001; Drange et al., 2001; Figure 6.11). Modelling studies indicate that The concept of ocean injection from a moving ship towing a trailing pipe was developed in order to minimize the localPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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