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The total work is then found as the closed surface integral of the pressure exerted on the system boundary during an expansion, or compression, from an initial volume V1 to a final volume V2 [33]. V2 V1 2.1.2 Internal Energy The energy of a system contained within its boundary is named the internal energy. It does not include the kinetic energy of the movement of the system as a whole nor any potential energy due to external force fields [33]. The internal energy of any given state is constructed by adding up the macroscopic transfers of energy that prepared it from the reference state to the current state. It can be expressed as U = ∆U + Uref (2.3) where ∆U is the change in internal energy formed as the summation of the energies required to transform the previous reference state to the new state, i.e. ∆U = εi (2.4) i In a classical view, the internal energy can be seen as the sum of motion of the particle’s contained within the system boundaries, with respect to the center-of-mass of the system. Therefore the internal energy may be divided into microscopic potential and kinetic energy components and expressed as U = Upot,micro + Ukin,micro (2.5) In a statistical view, each particle contained within the system has exists in its own microstate of energy, εi, and with a certain probability, pi. The internal energy of the system as a whole is then found as the expected values of all the individual microstates, i.e. [34] N U = piεi (2.6) i=1 The internal energy of the system can be increased by increasing the mass of the system, i.e. by increasing the number of particles, by the supply of heat or by doing thermodynamic work on the system. In practise it is difficult, if not impossible, to accurately measure the internal energy of any given state. However, engineering thermodynamics is only concerned with the changes in internal energy, 14 Wb = P · dV (2.2)PDF Image | Analysis of Organic Rankine Cycles for a Boiler Station
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