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parameters from identified hydrothermal sites in the same region (Augustine et al. 2019). At temperatures below the range traditionally used for electric power generation (<150°C),23 the total U.S. low-grade conventional geothermal resource capable of supporting geothermal direct-use (non-electric sector) applications is about 3.6 million gigawatt-hours-thermal (GWhth)—that is, 12 quadrillion British thermal units, or 12 quads. Expressed as a capacity value, this equates to 13.7 gigawatts-thermal (GWth).24 If sedimentary resources are included—including those traditionally used for oil and gas production that also exhibit elevated temperatures25—the total resource increases to 11.2 million GWhth (38 quads, or 43 GWth) (Mullane et al. 2016).26 By comparison, the entire U.S. residential sector used about 4.5 quads of natural gas for heating, cooking, and clothes drying in 2016 (EIA 2017d). 2.1.2 Unconventional Resources (Enhanced Geothermal Systems) The principal elements of heat, water, and permeability—when found together and in sufficient amounts—can support cost-competitive rates of energy extraction. Independent of water and permeability, thermal energy (heat) exists everywhere on Earth and increases with depth. Research funded in part by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) in the 1970s opened new frontiers of geothermal resources by studying EGS.27 At the most basic level, EGS are manmade geothermal reservoirs. Where the subsurface is hot but contains little permeability and/or fluid, pumping water into wells could stimulate the formation of a geothermal Heated fluids are recovered at the surface for energy production Power Plant Production Injection Well Well 23 The actual temperature below which electricity generation is no longer commercially feasible depends on the specific resource, its physical characteristics and thermodynamic state, the cost to access it, its location, and the cost of alternative electricity sources, among other things. Commercial electricity generation is generally economic from geothermal resources at temperatures above 150°C. However, there are several examples of commercial geothermal projects producing electricity from reservoir temperatures well below 150°C. Some examples of these projects include Chena Hot Springs (Alaska), Amedee (California), Raft River (Idaho), Neal Hot Springs (Oregon), and Wabuska (Nevada). 24 Conversion of geothermal heat energy resource to capacity was done following the conventions established in U.S. Geological Survey Circular 892, assuming a 30-year system life with a 100% capacity factor (USGS 1983). 25 Geothermal energy generation from reservoirs and basins with elevated temperatures that have traditionally been used for oil and gas production has been demonstrated multiple times and is an area of active research (e.g., Pleasant Bayou [Texas], Rocky Mountain Oil Testing Center [Wyoming], and Denbury [Mississippi]) (see Campbell and Hattar 1990, Reinhardt et al. 2011, Clark 2012, DOE 2016b). 26 Sedimentary geothermal basins are defined as, “thermal sedimentary aquifers overlain by low thermal-conductivity lithologies [that] contain trapped thermal fluid and have flow rates sufficient for production without stimulation” (Mullane et al. 2016). These sedimentary geothermal resources were explicitly captured in Mullane et al. 2016 for direct-use applications and were therefore considered in the GeoVision analysis of direct-use district heating. For the purposes of the GeoVision analysis, sedimentary resources could not be explicitly considered as part of the resource supply curves for modeling electric-sector deployment. 27 The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission initially sponsored research on hot, dry-rock EGS, followed by the U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration, and, eventually, DOE. The Federal Republic of Germany and Japan contributed significant funding and technical staff through an International Energy Agency agreement (DOE 2010). 18 Chapter 2 | What is Geothermal Energy? Heated fluid is produced back to the surface Injection creates fractures resulting in an EGS reservoir Fluids are injected into the earth for continuous energy recovery Figure 2-6. Conceptualization of an enhanced geothermal system Chapter 2PDF Image | What is Geothermal Energy
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