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Nanomaterials 2019, 9, 773 2 of 35 with the expansion of the Internet of Thing (IoT), sensors, wearable, and portable electronics, mobile phones, automatic security systems, defense technologies, etc., because they require power sources that are perpetual and free of maintenance. Generally, such devices rely on batteries for a power source, which has a limited life and environmental hazards. In this regard, harvesting the ambient mechanical energy to power up these devices could be a better choice. Ambient mechanical energy is abundant and the most significant form of renewable energy source among other sources in the environment [2–4]. There is a lot of potential in human body motions that can be effectively converted to electricity [5] (Table 1). Body Motions Blood Flow Exhalation Inhalation Upper Limbs Walking Fingers Typing Mechanical Energy 0.93 W 1 W 0.83 W 3 W 67 W 6.9–19 mW Available Electrical Energy 0.16 W 0.17 W 0.14 W 0.51 W 11.39 W 1.2–3.2 mW Electrical Energy Per Movement 0.16 J 1.02 J 0.84 J 2.25 J 18.90 J 226–406 mJ Table 1. Energy potential in human body motions [5]. This report aims to provide a comprehensive review on piezo-, tribo-, and pyro-based nanogenerators as sustainable energy-harvesting devices including the evolution, development, and applications of the nanogenerators in the past decade. The review is limited to materials used in nanogenerators, the corresponding growth in their electrical output, and their applications in harvesting various ambient energies over the years. The history and general overview of the development of nanogenerators are introduced in Section 2. Then, the working, output power performance, and applications of piezoelectric nanogenerators are summarized in Section 3. 2. History and Development of Nanogenerators Nanogenerators are generally an energy-harvesting device that generate electricity from waste mechanical energy from the ambient. Earlier, by the end of 17th century, scientists developed practical means to generate electricity from friction. The primitive form of friction machine was developed around 1663 [6]. Later, several researchers worked on this machine to establish the performance. In 1831, the electromagnetic generator was discovered, which is the widely used generator in thermal power plants still today. In 1878, the Wimshurst machine based on static electricity was discovered, which became a popular static electricity generator. In 1929, the famous Van de Graaff generator was invented, which produces very high-voltage direct current. The modern Van de Graaff generators can achieve the very high potential of up to 25 megavolts. Later, technologies were developed to generate electricity based on piezoelectric, triboelectric, and pyroelectric by applying nanotechnology. The high surface area and tunable physical and chemical properties of nanoscale structures promise significantly more efficient technologies that can capture, convert, and store different forms of energy like thermal, radiant, electrical, chemical, and mechanical [7]. The crucial inventions in the history of mechanical energy harvesting are shown in Figure 1a. The energy requirement of various devices at various power scale is represented in Figure 1b. So far, there are several ambient energy-harvesting techniques that have been utilized based on the piezoelectric effect, triboelectric effect, pyroelectric effect, and electromagnetic induction, which converts mechanical energy into electricity. Nanogenerators are an evolving energy-harvesting technology that can harvest various classes of mechanical energy such as human motion (i.e., walking, breathing, running, heartbeat), vibration, flowing water, raindrops, and wind; even waste heat can be converted into electricity (pyroelectric effect). The first nanogenerator was developed by Wang et al. in the year 2006 using ZnO nanowires based on the piezoelectric effect, which has a power conversion efficiency of 17–30% [8].PDF Image | Nanogenerators as a Sustainable Power Source
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