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Both cation sides of the diagrams are bottom heavy where sodium is the dominant cation. Calcium, magnesium, and potassium have a higher contribution, or deviation from the center axis in convention produced water. Bicarbonate is relatively absent by comparison to chloride in conventional produced water. Bicarbonate and chloride both exist in the unconventional system, where bicarbonate is more often the dominant anion. This diagram can be applied to the Western basins to observe variations and similarities between basins. Figure 17 shows the major Western conventional basins with the subsequent basinwide Stiff diagrams. As a general theme, the geographic spatial distributions are similar across most basins. Generally, the conventional basin diagrams are bottom heavy with their sodium chloride type waters and small relative influences from other ions. In certain basins, such as the Permian, Central Kansas, and Paradox, cations such as potassium, magnesium, and calcium occur at visible concentrations on the Stiff diagrams. These three diagrams share the same scale and, therefore, comparable concentrations. Sweetgrass Arch and Big Horn also contain visible concentrations of the alternate cations; however, the smaller scale suggests these concentrations may be visible on the diagram due to relatively lower concentrations of sodium. The same is true in these basins for the bicarbonate and sulfate anions. The Williston and Anadarko basins have the highest ion concentrations, although both are dominated by sodium chloride type waters. The lowest ion concentrations are found in the Sweetgrass Arch, Big Horn, and Wind River basins. The overall trends for Stiff diagrams over the Western United States include a general increase in diagram scale, which is consistent to the increase in ion concentrations or TDS towards the Southern United States. Again, the exception to this trend is the Williston basin in Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota. Although occurring at higher relative concentrations, these major ions are a small subset of the inorganic constituents present in produced water. The following section focuses on the remaining inorganic constituents, or minor ions, present in conventional and unconventional CBM produced waters. 6.2.2 Minor Ions Minor ions present in produced waters include inorganic constituents such as metals at varying ranges of concentrations as well as nonmetals such as fluoride and boron. These minor ions are found at relatively lower concentrations than the major ions, mentioned previously, in most wells (McBeth and Reddy 2003). Ranges of ions may reflect wells with elevated concentrations of certain constituents, but overall minor ions make up less than 1% of the overall constituent contribution to dissolved solids. Minor ions are of interest for a number of reasons including their regulation in beneficial use standards, potential hazardous nature if concentrated during treatment, recoverable quantity for constituents of value, and preserving natural systems during practices such as water application to soils in irrigation. 53PDF Image | Oil and Gas Produced Water Management
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