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Table 17. Chemicals added for treatment of produced water Problem Chemical corrosion Bacterial corrosion Hydrate formation Water Vapor Mineral deposits Emulsion (normal and reverse) Foaming Cause Chemical Treatment Chemical Concentrations Active ingredient concentration 3 –40% Concentrations ranging from 10–50% 5–15 gallons per million cubic feet of produced gas n/a Treatment concentrations from 3–5 ppm, but depend on the water type Bulk concentrations of 30–50% Treatment concentrations are 5–25 ppm Hydrogen sulfide gas, carbon dioxide or oxygen Corrosion inhibitor: amine imidazolines, amines and amine salts, quaternary ammonium salts, and nitrogen Sulfate reducing bacteria reducing sulfate to hydrogen sulfide Bactericides: quaternary amine salt, amine acetate, and gluteraldehyde Natural gas hydrates formed in the presence of water usually at high pressure and low temperature Hydrate inhibition: ethylene glycol and methanol Water vapor present in natural gas is removed to meet sales specifications Dehydration: Triethylene glycol (TEG) Inorganic mineral compounds causing scale or deposits, such as calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate (gypsum), strontium sulfate, and barium sulfate Scale inhibitor: phosphate esters, phosphonates, and acid polymers Normal – water droplets dispersed in the oil phase Reverse – oil droplets suspended in the continuous water phase Emulsion breakers: oxyalklated resins, polyglycol esters, and alkl aryl sulfonates Oil froth Defoamers: silicones and polyglycol esters irrigation 1,920 mg/L, and agriculture livestock watering 10,000 mg/L. These values are the least conservative concentrations allowable for each use. Utilizing this breakdown, figure 19 was created to depict the percentage of wells in each database suitable for each use. This chart is based purely on TDS concentration and does not take into account SAR or minor ions. Results from comparing database TDS concentrations to use alternatives indicate that water quality of produced water from both conventional and unconventional wells is unsuitable for drinking or ground water recharge untreated. Only 4% of the unconventional wells meet these criteria. Meanwhile 10% of the unconventional wells meet the 1,000-mg/L surface criteria for discharge. In the Powder River basin in Wyoming, a significant amount of produced water is discharged into watersheds (Clearwater, Morris et al. 2002). Numerous studies 61PDF Image | Oil and Gas Produced Water Management
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