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Processes 2020, 8, 1461 4 of 18 3. State-of-the-Art Thermodynamic Cycles for Waste Heat Recovery Various implementation pathways can be adopted with respect to the quality of waste heat sources [2]. The main approach is to utilize the available waste heat as heat source to drive the Processes 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 18 thermodynamic cycle and convert the thermal energy into useful power. One of the most important indicators for choosing a proper cycle is the operation temperature. Figure 3 depicts the possible thermodynamic cycles and the range of their relevant operation temperatures. The most suitable thermodynamic cycles and the range of their relevant operation temperatures. The most suitable waste waste heat temperature range for the Steam Rankine Cycle(SRC) is medium-high temperature, at heat temperature range for the Steam Rankine Cycle (SRC) is medium-high temperature, at about more about more than 300 °C. Systems for lower temperature heat sources are much less cost-effective and than 300 ◦C. Systems for lower temperature heat sources are much less cost-effective and may lead to may lead to surface corrosion problem. Furthermore, the Organic Rankine Cycle(ORC) which uses surface corrosion problem. Furthermore, the Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) which uses lower boiling lower boiling point organic fluids, has been also extensive investigated in last few decades. A suitable point organic fluids, has been also extensive investigated in last few decades. A suitable waste heat waste heat temperature to obtain competitive efficiency of the ORC ranges from 90 °C to 250 °C. temperature to obtain competitive efficiency of the ORC ranges from 90 ◦C to 250 ◦C. Additionally, the Additionally, the Kalina Cycle uses a mixture of ammonia and water as working fluid to closely meet Kalina Cycle uses a mixture of ammonia and water as working fluid to closely meet the temperature the temperature profile of waste heat sources during the phase change heat transfer process, between profile of waste heat sources during the phase change heat transfer process, between 100 ◦C and 450 ◦C. 100 °C and 450 °C. Recent years, the use of CO2 power cycles for waste heat recovery are gained more and more Recent years, the use of CO2 power cycles for waste heat recovery are gained more and more attentions. Such cycles are usually operated under trans-critical or supercritical conditions, due to attentions. Such cycles are usually operated under trans-critical or supercritical conditions,due to the the relatively low critical point of carbon dioxide. Its main advantages can be summarized as follows. relatively low critical point of carbon dioxide. Its main advantages can be summarized as follows. First of all, the CO2 cycles are suitable for the recovery of waste heat sources with a wide range First of all, the CO2 cycles are suitable for the recovery of waste heat sources with a wide range of of temperatures, while the steam based Rankine cycle is only efficientto recovery waste heat at temperatures, while the steam based Rankine cycle is only efficientto recovery waste heat at high- high-temperature. Therefore, the main propose to investigate the CO2 power cycles was not only to temperature. Therefore, the main propose to investigate the CO2 power cycles was not only to replace replace the SRC [24] but also as a more wide range to waste heat recovery temperatures [25]. The special the SRC [24] but also as a more wide range to waste heat recovery temperatures [25]. The special physical properties of CO2 can reduce the heat transfer loss between working fluid and heat source [26]. physical properties of CO2 can reduce the heat transfer loss between working fluid and heat source Furthermore, the CO2 is a non-combustible and nontoxic refrigerant which frees up space for the cycle [26]. Furthermore, the CO2 is a non-combustible and nontoxic refrigerant which frees up space for operation temperature to rise [27,28]. In addition, the CO2 power cycles occupy a smaller space as the cycle operation temperature to rise [27,28]. In addition, the CO2 power cycles occupy a smaller compared with SRC, which has a large working fluid steam volume and therefore shows great potential space as compared with SRC, which has a large working fluid steam volume and therefore shows for system downsizing and lightweight. Accordingly, the chemistry and condensingprocesses are also great potential for system downsizing and lightweight. Accordingly, the chemistry and simpler [28,29]. condensingprocesses are also simpler [28,29]. Figure 3. Thermodynamic cycles for waste heat recovery at various temperature-levels and scales. Figure 3. Thermodynamic cycles for waste heat recovery at various temperature-levels and scales. Besides to thermodynamic cycles, other choices is to use thermoelectric (TE) materialsfor Besides to thermodynamic cycles, other choices is to use thermoelectric (TE) materialsfor power power conversion of waste heat. Relevant investigations focus on the thermoelectric generator [30], conversion of waste heat. Relevant investigations focus on the thermoelectric generator [30], electrochemical systems [31], thermogalvanic cells [32] and pyroelectric energy conversion [33], electrochemical systems [31], thermogalvanic cells [32] and pyroelectric energy conversion [33], which are still under study and has no large scale market application. which are still under study and has no large scale market application. In summary, with respect to conventional thermodynamic cycles, supercritical carbon dioxide(s- CO2) cycles offer a wide range of operating temperatures and potentially higher efficiencies, and a much smaller environmental footprint [34–36]. Power cycles running on s-CO2 have received wide attention, and the number of publications has risen exponentially in recent years. However, the great potential for this technology in waste heat recovery remains to be further explored, which makes this comprehensive review of recent advances in s-CO2 cycles for waste heat recovery highly relevant.PDF Image | s-CO2) Power Cycle for Waste Heat Recovery
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