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In general, the load was shifted to natural-gas-fired combined-cycle power plants, which reduces energy input and CO2 emissions because of their lower heat rates (higher fuel efficiency). For three of the regions in which there is a lower proportion of combined-cycle capacity and coal-fired power plants (East Central Area Reliability Coordinating Agreement, Mid-America Interconnected Network, and Mid- Continent Area Power Pool [MAPP]), a portion of the energy was shifted to coal-fired power plants (50%, 40%, and 80%, respectively). This produces energy savings because of their lower heat rates, but causes higher CO2 emissions because of the higher carbon content of coal compared to natural gas. The results of the analysis described in Attachment 1, Mechanism E, are summarized here. The reductions in electricity and CO2 emissions calculated in Attachment 2 for this analysis are shown in Table 3.8. The estimated potential from the load-shifting capabilities of smart grid technologies are small: a direct reduction of 0.04% in total electricity supplied to the grid (with a range of 0.02% to 0.06%), and 0.03% reduction in associated CO2 emissions (approximately 75% of the electricity reduction). No indirect reductions are expected. Table 3.8. Estimated Direct Utility Energy and Carbon Reductions for Shifting Load to More Efficient Generation Reduced Energy Consumption (2030) Baseline Electricity Consumption Electric Sector Annual Reductions (2030) Energy Carbon Emissions Est. % 0.04 Low High % % 0.02 0.06 % of United States 0.04 9 year) % of United States 0.03 (MMT/ yearr) 1 End-Use Sector(s) Total Electric Supply 9 (10 kWh/year) 4968 (10 kWh/ 2 These reductions are quite small. This is fundamentally because of the relatively few hours per year the load needs to be shifted to produce a 10% reduction in peak load (168 hours on average), and the average power shifted during those hours is only about 5% (approximating the area of the “wedge” shifted as a triangle). So, the overall energy shifted is correspondingly small (about 0.1% of the total generation), and in the limit this could only produce 0.1% savings even if the generation used to meet it were entirely renewable. A dispatch algorithm that shifts load more frequently could produce larger reductions. It would presumably have energy and CO2 reductions as its primary objective, rather than peak load management. Since demand response is limited by the willingness of participants to forgo some amenity or service value, it may not be possible to utilize demand response assets on a daily basis in such an algorithm. Energy storage could play a much more frequent role in such a dispatch algorithm, as long as such frequent use would not reduce its lifetime. Among the options for storage, compressed air or pumped hydro storage could play a much more significant role than battery-based storage for this purpose. 3.1.7 Support Additional Electric Vehicles and Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles This topic examines how advanced load management technologies for EV, “smart charging,” can improve the overall national energy efficiency and reduce carbon emissions of LDV transportation. This mechanism is summarized here, with detail on the literature review and conclusions provided in Attachment 1. 3.24PDF Image | The Smart Grid: An Estimation of the Energy and CO2 Benefits
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