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market cost of regulation below that of power plants. The impacts on the lifetime of using vehicle batteries this way is not yet known. Analyzing these potential impacts is left to future analysis. 3.1.8 Conservation Voltage Reduction and Advanced Voltage Control This subsection describes how the smart grid can increase the efficiency of electricity delivery by managing the electric service voltage seen by end-use customers to reduce the distribution system losses and reduce the energy consumption of customer loads. End-use energy consumption has been shown to drop when the electric service voltage is reduced. This strategy, termed conservation voltage reduction (CVR), occurs primarily because the energy consumption of certain end-use loads such as incandescent lights and certain electronics go down as the voltage is decreased. Conversely, electric losses in distribution systems tend to increase as voltage drops, because motors and other constant power loads tend to draw more current to compensate, and losses are proportional to the square of the current. Electric distribution system losses average around 5% and increase to 8% or more during peak load periods when voltage drops and current increases. A smart grid’s measurement and communication capabilities provide an opportunity to continually optimize tradeoffs in service voltage and energy use by precisely controlling voltage within acceptable limits. This optimization process, which includes CVR, is advanced voltage control. The drop in voltage along the length of a feeder is illustrated in Figure 3.7 under peak and minimum load conditions. The voltage drops because of the power losses in the conductors and equipment on the feeder. The higher the load, the more current flows through the feeder and the higher the resultant voltage drop. The voltage standard for the United States for a single phase at a residential customer meter ranges from 126 volts to 114 volts, per ANSI C84.1 (ANSI 1996). Voltages higher or lower than that have the potential to damage customer equipment. End of Feeder Voltage (Peak Load) Feeder Length Figure3.7. VoltageDropAlongaFeederatPeakandMinimumLoads End of Feeder Voltage (Minimum Load) 126V 120V 114V } Voltage available for CVR Excess voltage available for CVR Distribution operators maintain voltages for all customers within these limits by adjusting voltage at the substation transformers and voltage regulators at head of the feeder. In particularly heavily loaded feeders, additional voltage regulators are sometimes added along the length of the feeder to adjust the voltage. Typically, the voltage at the head of the feeder is set somewhat lower than the maximum 126- volt level, but a safety factor in the form of some excess voltage is provided at the end of the feeder. 3.27PDF Image | The Smart Grid: An Estimation of the Energy and CO2 Benefits
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